The end of Lehman Brothers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The end of Lehman Brothers - Essay Example The scandal that brought the Lehman brothers to their knees was one that involved financial and accounting fraud, which was no new case for the firm since its inception. Following the release of reports following the bankruptcy of Lehman, scandals are cropping up showing that the Lehmans have been cooking their books, also known as creative accounting since before the financial crisis hit the world in the last years of the previous decade. The precise time would be around the year 2007, when things began to go downhill for them. The scandal goes by the name â€Å"Repo 105† following the textbook application of previously used antics to bring about a scandal (Sharp). The scandal begins with deals involving banks in the Cayman Islands relating to repurchase agreements. In this case, Lehman planned to dispense toxic assets to the banks that got into the deal, on the condition that, after a given short period, Lehman would repurchase them. This deal made the Lehmans appear to be an honest organization dealing as per the law. However, the whole issue was only on paper, while the actual organization of the firm revolved around dirty dealings and fraud (Sharp). All the above was in an attempt to pull a fast one on investors and credit rating agencies to maintain their prestigious position. In the meantime, the Lehmans brothers were quite busy embezzling funds and finances from their organization on a colossal scale to a pint of no return. In their creative accounting, the Lehmans went beyond themselves in defrauding the public and investors by using the toxic assets as leverage. This is by balancing their books with the said assets as sales and not as loans, as is common practice in the financial world. The implication was that the firm reflected having more liquid cash in their books, as opposed to having more assets in mortgages as would be expected. This marked a calculated move to defraud every one off their keenness and trust in the firm by

You may do two papers on one artist's Research Paper

You may do two papers on one artist's - Research Paper Example While his mother assisted him in appreciating art as a young boy of 12 years, working at his father’s barbershop opened him up to the business world and to social issues of his surroundings. Mentorship alone is not enough to develop and sharpen skills and thus Hunt went through schooling. The first formal training that Hunt attended was at Juniors School of Art Institute at Chicago and later he joined University of Illinois to further his studies. At this early age, Hunt began experimental sculptors from abstract though guided by the twentieth century’s artists. This made him impress the community around him and he joined several exhibitions like Artists of Chicago, Vicinity Show, and American Show. While in the American show, Museum of Modern Art purchased a piece for its collection. In 1962, he was the youngest artist to exhibit in Seattle World’s fair, which is an international survey exhibition. According to Richard Hunt as quoted in the Lubeznik centre, â€Å"My career in sculpture began in 1955. It was then, while still a student, I began to exhibit my sculpture around Chicago in all sorts of places-art fairs, small galleries, local art centres, and the like† (Lubeznik centre). Hunt describes his career in the next twelve years that followed this and how he grew in the area of sculptural development. In addition, his skills enabled him to develop as a private, independent studio based and self-generated artist. In 1974, Richard accepted to head the project of Thunderbird Park that had started in 1952 with his grandfather Mungo Martin. He later dropped the project and started his own studio to pursue his own career. According to Galleria Silecchia, â€Å"Among other public works, Richard was selected for a major installation at the Vancouver International Airport and was a part of a multi-artist commission to create the furnishings for the University of

Consider the significance of the Edict of Nantes 1598 Essay Example for Free

Consider the significance of the Edict of Nantes 1598 Essay The Edict of Nantes immediately followed the Wars of Religion, which further divided France in terms of religion. The Edict of Nantes could be described as a significant development in policies regarding religion in France in the 17th century. The policies were implemented by a monarch who sat on the fence when it came to religion, having devotions to both Catholicism and Protestantism, in the shape of Henry IV. The Edict of Nantes itself was very significant as its policy was the first of its kind in French politics. Never before had a French monarch tolerated both Catholicism and Protestantism and allowed them both to flourish in the same country. Whatever Henrys beliefs and motives in implementing such a policy, it was certainly an original policy and a significant development in sixteenth and seventeenth century France. Toleration existed and although it can be argued that Protestants didnt have very much power and the Catholics remained in near total control of the majority of areas in the country but the Protestants certainly had more power than they had under previous more anti-Protestant monarchs. The Edict could also be described as a turning point. Indeed, it could be described as a very significant turning point. Legislation was put in place in an attempt to avoid discrimination against the Protestants. Discrimination was not evident by the Edict itself; it was more of a case of trying to give the Protestants more rights. Henry couldnt go as far as giving the Protestants equal legal, religious and political rights because he would lose the support of the Catholics. However, there can be no denying the significance of the legislation. It was the attempt to be pragmatic where religion is concerned which resulted in his death. The significance of Henrys reign lies in the difference and the pragmatism of his reign. The actual legislation could be described as ground breaking. The rights that the Edict of Nantes gave the Protestants included full liberty of conscience and private worship; liberty of public worship wherever it had previously been granted and its extension to numerous other localities and to estates of Protestant nobles; full civil rights including the right to hold public office; royal subsidies for Protestant schools; special courts, composed of Roman Catholic and Protestant judges, to judge cases involving Protestants; retention of the organization of the Protestant church in France; and Protestant control of some 200 cities then held by the Huguenots, including such strongholds as La Rochelle, with the king contributing to the maintenance of their garrisons and fortifications. In practice, things were slightly different for the Protestants who were oppressed by the Catholics and still werent allowed anywhere near Paris. It is clear that full, equal rights for the Protestants were not given by Henry for example, Roman Catholic judges had more power in the courts than the Protestant judges did and often Roman Catholic bias came through in a number of cases but there was some attempt to give the Protestants some rights and freedoms which was in itself significant. The Edict of Nantes was also very significant in terms of Henrys foreign policy. He wanted to protect the southern border of France from the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. Henry was more patriotic than the French kings before him and his policies show this as he placed the Protestants in the south of France, using the Protestants to protect France from Spain. All of this means that in terms of French foreign policy the Edict of Nantes carries further significance for a number of reasons The removal of the Protestants away from Paris and further towards the south means that Henry IV embarked on a policy of centralisation. There is no doubt that Henry converted to Catholicism and tried to maintain as much power as possible for his Catholic friends in the establishment. Policies were made more in a centralised way i.e. from Paris and the Protestants were freezed out in positions of power by the Catholics. This is significant because of the reign of Louis XIII who furthered the centralisation policy, and shows that there was a trend towards centralisation before Louis XIII came onto the throne. This also shows that Henrys domestic and foreign policy can easily be linked, which is also significant. All of this emphasises how significant the Edict of Nantes was. Henrys patriotism was also on show in the implementation of the Edict of Nantes. He didnt want any foreign influence in his affairs and he wanted to appease the Protestants. The best way to appease them was giving them an important role whilst getting what he wanted in his foreign policy by getting the Protestants to protect the borders of France. This is highly significant as never before had a French monarch been as patriotic as Henry and it is also significant because it indicates that Henry didnt actually want the Catholics to have power in all areas of France which probably indicates that he still had allegiances to the Protestant beliefs despite his conversion to Catholicism. Henrys tactical manoeuvres were also significant in another way. Basically, he prevented the Wars of Religion from continuing and restarting again. The irony is that his tendency to sit on the fence on the issue of religion in the end cost him his life. This is why some historians place emphasis on the significance of this aspect of the Edict of Nantes. Henrys early life as a Protestant and his subsequent conversion to Catholicism make the Edict of Nantes interesting as well as significant. To consider the significance of the Edict of Nantes, we have to consider the situation in France before Henry IV came to the throne and even beyond the Wars of Religion. The Wars of Religion were where the Calvinist Huguenots (Protestants) and the Catholics did battle for control of the monarchy. The Catholics won and maintained control of the monarchy; however, it is clear that something needed to be done to prevent another War of Religion from happening. Henry IV was the man with the job of preventing another War of Religion and he turned out to be the perfect man for the job. Unlike most French monarchs in this period, Henry was pragmatic when it came to religion although he had developed a slight preference for Catholicism. Henry felt that they were more important things than religion his patriotism as opposed to his religious beliefs but ultimately it was this that caused his downfall and eventual death. However, the very fact that the Wars of Religion didnt happen again throughout Henry IVs reign is very significant considering the huge division between the two religions. Another War of Religion could have shaped French history differently, especially if the Protestants/Calvinists came out on top. Todays France could also have been completely different if a war wasnt avoided. This makes Henrys reign and of course the Edict of Nantes take on further significance. The Edict of Nantes certainly cannot be described as revolutionary but it was almost a complete reform of the laws regarding religion. In reality, there was little reform because there was major exploitation of flaws in the law by the Catholics. However, this shouldnt take anything away from the significance of the Edict of Nantes because the laws created Protestant strangleholds in the south of France. Despite all this, the Edict of Nantes takes on an apparent lack of significance because of what happened to Henry and what happened under the reigns of subsequent monarchs. The Edict was indeed revoked in 1685 and steadily the Catholics moved towards a position of total power over the Protestants. So this means that the Edict of Nantes loses some of its significance because the policies of Henry had no impact on future monarchs. During Henrys reign, however, significance can be attached to the Edict.

The Life Of William Harvey

The Life Of William Harvey William Harvey an English physician, was the first to describe the circulation of the human body and properties of blood being transported throughout the body by its mechanical pump, the heart. He studied medicine at the University of Padua in Italy and was tutored by surgeon Hieronymus Fabricius. Fabricius, was fascinated by anatomy, and discovered that the veins in the human body had one-way valves, but was not too sure as to what their function was. Harvey went on, based on Fabriciuss findings, to figure out the role valves play in circulation of the body. He returned from Italy in 1602 and established himself as a physician. His career was taken to a whole new, better level when he married Elizabeth Browne, the daughter of Elizabeth Is physician. They were married in 1604. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1607 and, in 1609, was appointed physician to St Bartholomews Hospital. The highlight of his career, however was probably when he became physician to Elizabeths successor James I and to James son Charles when he ascended to the throne, in 1618. Both King James and King Charles took a close interest in and encouraged Harvey in every step of his research. Harveys research was furthered through the dissection of animals. He first revealed his theories at the College of Physicians in 1616. In 1628 he published these theories in a book titled Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals). Here was where he explained how the heart pumped the blood in a circular course through the body. His discovery received great accolades and interest in England, although it was greeted with some scepticism on the Continent. Harvey was also the first to theorize that humans and other mammals reproduced via the fertilisation of an egg by sperm. It took another two centuries before a mammalian egg was finally observed, but Harveys theory still won credibility during his lifetime. Harvey held a close relationship with the royal family through the English Civil War and also witnessed the Battle of Edgehill. Harvey is often credited as the Father of Cardiovascular Medicine. His observations of dissected hearts showed that the valves in the heart allowed blood to flow in only one direction. Also, even though he lacked a microscope, he theorized that the arteries and veins were connected to each other by capillaries, which were later be discovered by Marcello Malpighi some years after Harveys death. William Harveys work became the foundation for all modern research on the heart and cardiovascular medicine. It has been said that Harveys proof of the continuous circulation of the blood within a contained system was the seventeenth centurys most significant achievement in physiology and medicine. He is also often referred to as the Father of Scientific Method. Harvey believed that direct observation was the correct way to draw conclusions about scientific facts. He kept records of his experiments. He did not record his findings until he proved them. This practice became known as the scientific method, and Harvey has received much credit for having promoted its use. Historical background William Harvey was the eldest child of merchant Thomas Harvey and Joan Halke and was born in Folkestone, Kent on the 1st of April, 1578 . His father was known to be a styled gentleman, who upon referring to the register of Williams matriculation at Cambridge, was designated a yeoman of Kent. He must have been a man of some substance and position, as all of his seven sons followed careers, and attained positions necessitating the possession of capital at the outset. William had five brothers who were all merchants of repute in the city of London. They traded extensively with Turkey and the Levant. John, the second son, was at one time Member of Parliament for Hythe, and afterwards became Kings Beceiver for Lincolnshire, and Footman to His Majesty. Of Joan Halke, Harveys mother, but little has been preserved to us, and that little has been derived from the inscription on a monumental slab in Folkestone Church. She is there described as having died in her 50th year, the mother of seven sons and two daughters. A Godly harmles Woman: A chaste loveing Wife: A charitable quiet Neighbour: A cofortable frendly Matron: A pevident diligent Huswyfe: A careful teder-harted Mother. Deere to her Husband: Eeverensed of her Children: Beloved of her Neighbours: Elected of God. Whose Soule Best in Heaven: her Body in this Grave: To Her a Happy Advantage: To Hers an Unhappy Loss. Conjecture has attributed the authorship of the inscription to her son William. There were two daughters, one of whom died young, and of the other nothing beyond her name is known. Harvey attended Kings School in Canterbury from 1588 to 1593. There he worked at the ordinary subjects of an English education, and acquired a good knowledge of both Latin and Greek. This was essential at a time when the influence of authority was triumphant, and when even contemporary literature, to appear learned, must needs be expressed in Latin. He then studied at Cambridge University and Gonville and Caius College from 15 93 to 1599. He spent these years in the study of classics, dialectics and physics. Such a course of training was then, as now, considered a fitting prelude to the study of the science and art of medicine. In 1597, being then nineteen years of age, he was made a Bachelor of Arts of his university. At that time, and indeed until quite recently, the University of Cambridge was in a very different position with regard to the teaching of medicine from what we now find. Divinity was its chief glory, and the well equipped medical school of the present was almost unrepresented, one or two professorships only being devoted to medical subjects. Hence he decided to attend one of the premier institutes of Medicine in the Continent, located in Padua, to pursue his career in medicine. It was there that he worked with Hieronymus Fabricius, who was a well known anatomist and had observed the one-way valves in blood vessels. After graduating from Padua, he returned to England to establish himself as a physician and joined the College of Physicians on the 5th of October, 1604. After marrying Elizabeth Browne, daughter of physician Lancelot Browne, he accepted his position at St. Bartholomews Hospital, succeeding a Dr. Wilkinson, as the physician in charge of the hospital. At this point, the physicians function consisted of a simple but thorough analysis of patients who were brought to the hospital once a week and the consequent writing of prescriptions. Hieronymus Fabricius The next important phase of Harveys life began when he was appointed to the office of Lumleian lecturer on 4 August 1615. The Lumleian lectureship, consisted in giving lectures for a period of seven years, with the purpose of enlightening and increasing the general knowledge of anatomy throughout England. Harvey began his lectures in April 1616. At this time, at the age of thirty-seven, he was described as a man of lowest stature, round faced; his eyes small, round, very black and full of spirit; his hair as black as a raven and curling ( Book : William Harvey; author : Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) . Some of the notes which he used at the time are preserved in the British Museum (the manuscript notes of which contain the first account of blood circulation). At the beginning of his lectures, Harvey laid down the canons for his guidance: To show as much as may be at a glance, the whole belly for instance, and afterwards to subdivide the parts according to their positions and relations. To point out what is peculiar to the actual body which is being dissected. To supply only by speech what cannot be shown on your own credit and by authority. To cut up as much as may be in the sight of the audience. To enforce the right opinion by remarks drawn far and near, and to illustrate man by the structure of animals. Not to praise or dispraise other anatomists, for all did well, and there was some excuse even for those who are in error. Not to dispute with others, or attempt to confute them, except by the most obvious retort. To state things briefly and plainly, yet not letting anything pass unmentioned which can be seen. Not to speak of anything that can be well explained without the body or can be read at home. Not to enter into too much detail, or in too minute dissection, for the time does not permit. To allot a definite time to each part of the body i.e. first days lectures dedicated to the abdomen, the second to the thorax, the third to the brain and so on. (Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) . He soon attained a practice of great importance, when he was appointed the Physician Extraordinary to King James I, on the 3rd of February 1618. Although Harveys practice suffered because of his radical views, he was also in the picture during King Charles Is reign. Harvey accompanied King Charles I wherever he went as Physician in Ordinary. In particular, Charles hunting expeditions gave Harvey access to many deer carcasses. Harvey made use of these deer carcasses by conducting most of his experiments on them; from these, he made his many observations and consequent theories. King James I King Charles I During the English Civil War a mob of citizen-soldiers against the King entered Harveys lodgings, stole his goods, and scattered his papers. The papers consisted of the records of a large number of dissections of diseased bodies, with this observations on the development on insects, and a series of notes on comparative anatomy. ( Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897). Harvey continued to maintain his position and helped the wounded on several occasions. He also protected the Kings children. The conflicts of the Civil War soon led King Charles to Oxford, with Harvey attending, where the physician was made Doctor of Physic in 1642 and later Warden of Merton College in 1645. In Oxford he (Harvey) very soon settled down to his accustomed pursuits, unmindful of the clatter of arms and of the constant marching and countermarching around him, for the city remained the base of operations until its surrender ( Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) Merton College The surrender of Oxford in 1645 marked the beginning of Harveys gradual retirement from the medical world. Now sixty-eight years old and childless, Harvey had lost three brothers and wife at this time. He decided to return to London and live with his brothers Eliab and Daniel separately and in different periods of time. Having retired from St BartholomewHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Bartholomews_HospitalHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Bartholomews_Hospitals Hospital and his various other aforementioned positions, he passed most of this time reading general literature. Several attempts to bring Harvey back into the working world were made, however; here is an excerpt of one of Harveys answers: Would you be the man who should recommend me to quit the peaceful haven where I now pass my life and launch again upon the faithless sea? You know full well what a storm my former lucubrations raised. Much better is it oftentimes to grow wise at home and in private, than by publishing what you have amassed with infinite labour, to stir up tempests that may rob you of peace and quiet for the rest of your days. (Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year :1897) He died of a stroke on June 3, 1657, and, lapt in lead, was buried in Hempstead church. Apparently, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage from vessels long injured by gout: it is highly probable that the left Sylvian artery malfunctioned, leading to a gradual accumulation of blood to the brain which eventually overwhelmed it, resulting in his death. There exists a fairly detailed account of what happened on that day; according to the information at hand, Harvey: went to speak and found that he had the dead palsy in his tongue; then he saw what was to become of him. He knew there were then no hopes of his recovery, so presently he sends for his young nephews to come up to him. He then made signs (for seized with the dead palsy in his tongue he could not speak) to let him blood his tongue, which did him little or no good, and so ended his days, dying in the evening of the day on which he was stricken, the palsy giving him an easy passport. (Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) Experimental Procedures Harvey was well trained in anatomy, and he, like his idols Versalius and Fabricius, was convinced that the interventricular septum was not leaky to blood. Also, he was born into an era in which experimentation, computation and simple observation, became recognized as essential tools of the scientific method. He was well aware of the works of Copernicus and Kepler, and of his contemporary Galileo, for whom the combination of careful observation and computation resulted in nothing less than a switch between the earth and the sun as the center of our universe; Galileos dictum Measure all that is measurable, and make those things measurable which have hitherto not been measured (Book: William Harveys Biological Ideas; author: W. Pagel; year: 1967) was deeply impressed upon him. He was also familiar with the somewhat earlier writings of Santorio Santoro, who, sitting on an exquisitely sensitive balance, compared his body weight and the difference between the ingested food and his excreta and was capable of observing that the body lost a certain amount of weight continuously in the form of insensible perspiration (Book: History of Physiology; author: E. Rothschuh; year: 1973). But Harvey himself was a pioneer (Book: Handbook of Physiology: Circulation; author: CD Leake; year: 1962 ). Unlike the great Kepler, who improved upon Copernicus observations, and Galileo, whose telescope unequivocally established the Copernican revolution, Harvey did not build on anything, revise anything, or improve on anything. This revolution was set forth in his book entitled Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus or Anatomical Essay on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals (Book: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals; author: William Harvey, translated by Keynes G; year: 1978), commonly referred to as De Motu Cordis or simply De Motu. It was published in 1628 when Harvey was already 50 years old. Knowing that he was challenging a big fish, he opened the monograph with a letter to the King, Prince Charles, with the statement : The heart of animals is the foundation of their life, the sovereign of everything within themfrom which all power proceeds. The King, in like manner, is the foundation of his kingdom, the sun of the world around him, the heart of the republic, the foundation whence all power, all grace doth flow. (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910) His dedication to the President of the Royal College of Physicians reads like: Hey, Im really not out to get anyone, all I want to do is tell the truth! For example, in this dedication he states the studious and good and true do not esteem it discreditable to desert error, though sanctioned by the highest antiquity, for they know full well that to err, to be deceived, is human.I would not charge with willful falsehood anyone who was sincerely anxious for truth, nor lay it at any ones door as a crime that he had fallen into error. I avow myself the partisan of truth alone. (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910) He closes: Farewell, most worthy Doctors, and think kindly of your Anatomist (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910), suggesting that he feared the worst. Harveys revolutionary conclusion that blood is conserved and circulates was based on only a few observations, the major ones were as follows: First, he measured the total amount of blood that could be drained from sheep, pigs, and some other subprimate mammals. He then measured the volume of the left ventricles of these animals and calculated that, if the left ventricle were to empty with each beat, in one hour the total volume of blood pumped would be much greater that in the ingesta( material taken into the body by means of the digestive tract) or even that contained in the entire animal. Indeed, this would be true even if one-tenth of the blood contained by the ventricle were ejected per beat. Therefore, he concluded, it is a matter of necessity that the blood perform a circuit, that it returns to whence it set out. He then demonstrated, publicly, that when a live snake is laid open, compression of the vein entering the heart leads to a small heart that is devoid of blood upon opening it. If on the contrary, the artery instead of the vein be compressed or tied you will observe the part between the obstacle and the heart, and the heart itself to become largely distended and, in the end, to become so oppressed with blood that you will believe it about to be choked. (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910) He also showed that, following light application of a tourniquet to the arm, the veins become engorged and that blood can only be milked from an engorged vein in the oral direction toward the heart but when the vein is thus emptied it only fills from the periphery. Also, when one knows the diameter and length of the cylinder of vein, one can calculate the volume of blood that flows through the vein during rapid emptying and refilling. Harvey showed that in a day more blood flows through that segment alone than the quantity of food ingested. Harveys experiment illustrating the venous valves (nodes or portals) and the unidirectional nature of emptying and filling. He also states: Now if you reckon the business, how much by one compression moves upwards by suppression of the portal, and multiplying that by thousands, you shall find so much blood passd by this means through a little part of a vein, that you will find yourself perfectly persuaded concerning the circulation of the blood, and of its swift motion (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910). Harvey also possessed a lifelong obsession with animal generation. His fascination with the perfection of animals brought about his desire to find out how the organisms arise. This is described in his introduction to his Essays on the Generation of Animals. His fascination sprouted from his study of Aristotles ideas of generation. Harvey decided to further investigate Aristotles views by studying a hens eggs in order to understand the meaning of generation in animals. He justified his decision and his plan of pursuing his research in Of the Method to be pursued in studying Generation passage of the introduction to Essays of the Generation of Animals. First of all, a hens egg had a simple structure and readily available for frequent experimentation. In the introduction to his essays, he further explained that his choice of using a chicken egg was acceptable because the other animals had similar means of generation. Results drawn from the experiment he would conduct on a hens egg coul d be related to the reproduction in more complex animals; even animals that did not produce eggs. All animals reproduce with some form of an egg, which he considered to be a metaphor for the simple origin of any new life form. Harvey considered it necessary to start with the less complicated animals because this would allow him to repeat the tests many number of times to ensure accurate results. His strategy was to observe the formation of a chick to create a history of its development. Harvey would then use this information to show the cause of generation and the order in which it proceeded in. Before Harveys research, scientists believed in a theory known as pre-formation, which assumed that an animal already possessed the traits of the mature mammal and grew in size in the mothers womb. William Harvey refuted these prior theories in his consideration of the history of an eggs development. He noticed that the fetus began as a single drop of blood and then further differentiated into an egg which later became the chick. As a result, he rejected the idea that an exact replica of the organism could be found in reproductive material of either the male or the female. Harvey, however, learned by investigating the stages of development in the eggs that some parts of the animal are engendered before others. (Book: William Harvey and the Purpose of Circulation; author: Walter Pagel; year: 1951). Another concern of Harveys was the theories of previous scientists on the role of the male and the female in animal generation. Scientists before attempted to find an answer to this mystery. Galen assumed the yolk in a hens egg was a joint of male and female secretions (Book: Investigations into Generation; author: Elizabeth Gasking; year: 1967). Aristotle hypothesized that the cause of generation was the males semen acting on the menstrual blood of the female making the menstrual blood the source of matter and the semen the efficient source (Book: William Harvey and the Primacy of Blood; author: John White; year: 1986). Fabricius presumed the male caused the material and the female provided the nourishment. Harvey wanted to solve the mystery of the purpose of each sex, so he examined the male and female genital systems of the deer carcasses he found in King Charles Royal Parks (Book: Investigations into Generation; author: Elizabeth Gasking; year: 1967). Through Harveys investigation, he disproved Aristotles theories and clarified this in the passage Of the manner, according to Aristotle, in which a perfect and fruitful egg is produced by the male and female fowl in his essays (Book: The Works Of William Harvey; translated by Robert Willis; year: 1847). He did not consider Aristotles efficient cause as relevant in the discussion of reproduction because Aristotles agent of the efficiency was only semen from the male. According to Harvey, semen was an external cause and could not produce an effect on the soul of the offspring because it was not with it throughout its lifetime of the offspring (Book: Investigations into Generation; author: Elizabeth Gasking; year: 1967). Also, Harvey expla ined the female must have a role in the efficiency when he stated, The earth, too, spontaneously engenders many things without seed, and among animals, certain females, but females only, procreate of themselves and without the concurrence of the male: hens, for example, lay hypenemic eggs; but males; without the intervention of females, engender nothing (Book: The Works Of William Harvey; translated by Robert Willis; year: 1847). He deduced that if the female can reproduce without the male, then the male must not be the only agent to produce the efficiency. He was able to develop this view by looking at less complex organisms and extending it to more evolved animals because he considered all animals to share similar reproductive processes. Accordingly, he allowed himself to make broad generalizations about generation through species barriers. One of the many reasons for William Harveys success was his meticulous experimentation, now known as the scientific method. Scientists precedi ng William Harvey used experimentation in order to investigate; however, Harvey set a new standard for testing. He made precise calculations before and during experiments. For example, in his study of circulation, he calculated the exact amount of blood released from the heart with every thrust (Book: Early Reactions to Harveys Circulation Theory: The Impact on Medicine; author: Steven Lubitz; year: 2004). Harvey closely examined and dissected various animals. While many scientists such as Galen used only careless observation, Harvey tested physically and then retested numerous times to ensure his results lacked error. In fact, William Harvey was the first to apply quantitative and observational methods simultaneously within his research. He picked test subjects that would be immediately available for many experiments. In the examination of blood and animal generation, Harvey used hens eggs because they were cheap and available in abundance. As the Kings physician, Harvey examined d eer in his studies of animal generation. King Charles was fascinated by Harveys research, so he gave the carcasses of his weekly deer hunting to Harvey to dissect (Book: Where Do Babies Come From? ; author: R.V. Short; year: 2000). The substitution of the mammal into testing greatly advanced Harveys research because he could relate his concepts of reproduction to an organism that did not produce an actual egg. Contributions Harvey was awestruck by the way blood flowed through the human body. Most people of the day believed that food was converted into blood by the liver, and then was consumed as fuel by the body. Harvey knew this was false by the understanding of his firsthand observations of the human and animal dissections he made earlier to study on. In 1628 Harvey published An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals which explained how blood was pumped from the heart throughout the body, then returned to the heart and re-circulated. This book expressed views that were very controversial and lost Harvey many patients, but it ultimately became the basis for all modern research on the heart and blood vessels. Unlike the other anatomical textbooks written in the past, Harveys book has only one illustration with a set of four related figures. This absence of pictures was probably deliberate to show Harveys dedication to the scientific experimental method. The reader by act ually recreating Harveys experiments was forced to follow each step of Harveys methods specifically, in a way that a general examination of illustrations did not require. The four figures depict a simple but persuasive experiment that can be performed on a human arm without dissection. The experiment involves tying the arm with a tourniquet and adjusting the tightness to demonstrate that the blood can either be cut off from the arm or permitted to overfill the arm, causing the veins to bulge. This procedure was also used for bloodletting: the removal of blood from the vein in the arm was a common treatment for a variety of medical conditions and was also a means of preventing disease. Bloodletting was a common therapy of early medicine. It was done by cutting into a vein, called venesection or phlebotomy. This work was often done by a surgeon or a barber-surgeon. The veins near the elbow were commonly used. In this book, Harvey proves the following: that it is the contraction, not the dilation, of the heart which coincides with the pulse, and that the ventricles as true muscular sacs squeeze the blood which they contain into the aorta and pulmonary artery; that the pulse is not produced by the arteries enlarging and so filling, but by the arteries being filled with blood and so enlarging; that there are no pores in the septum of the heart, so that the whole blood in the right ventricle is sent to the lungs and around by the pulmonary veins to the left ventricle, and also that the whole blood in the left ventricle is again sent into the arteries, around by the smaller veins into the vena cava, and by them to the right ventricle again thus making a complete circulation; that the blood in the arteries and that in the veins is the same blood; that the action of the right and left sides of the heart, auricles, ventricles and valves, is the same, the mechanism in both being for reception and propulsion of liquid and not of air, since the blood on the right side, though mixed with air, is still blood; that the blood sent through the arteries to the tissues is not all used, but that most of it runs through into the veins; that there is no to and fro undulation in the veins, but a constant stream from the distant parts towards the heart; that the dynamical starting-point of the blood is the heart and not the liver. This demonstration of the circulation was incomplete in one point only, though. Harvey could not discover the capillaries through which the blood passes from the arteries into the veins. This gap in the circulation was filled in several years later by the great Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi, who in 1661, a few years after Harveys death, observed in the lungs of a frog, by the newly invented microscope, how the blood passes from the one set of vessels to the other. Harvey saw all that could be seen by the naked eye in his observations on living animals; Malpighi, four years after Harveys death, by another observation on a living animal, completed the marvelous chain of evidence. A second ground-breaking book published by Harvey in 1651, Essays on the Generation of Animals, is considered the basis for modern embryology. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, theories of embryology and development were superimposed with theories of sexual reproduction, along with a number of theories on the origins of life, most of which supported the idea of spontaneous generation. During this period debates raged over spontaneous generation, the idea that life was spontaneously created out of inanimate matter. The popular belief that living organisms propagated from mud in streams, dirt, or environments such as rotting meat was supported by a number of scholars. William Harveys research into reproduction, published in 1651 as Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (Essays on the generation of animals), began to cast doubt on spontaneous generation. Harvey believed that all life reproduced sexually, a view that he stated with his famous dictum Ex ovo omnia (Everything comes from the egg). Although he was taught by Fabricius, William Harvey criticized his teachers views about reproduction. In fact, the inaccuracy he saw in Fabriciuss beliefs prompted his investigation of animal generation (Book: The Ovary of Eve: Egg and Sperm and Pre-formation (The organism is preformed as a complete miniature structure in the sperm or the egg and simply grows larger as it develops. This means that the first reproducing human would have had to have all succeeding generations within itself. Sort of like Russian dolls.) ; author: Pinto-Correia, Clara; year: 1997). The flaws Harvey detected were in Fabriciuss idea of the role semen played in reproduction. His teacher thought that after the male had been in contact with the female, all the eggs are made fertile. But upon his experimentation, Harvey discovered that the hen laid an egg ten days after interaction with the male, and then another thirteen days after. Hence, he concluded that the male did fertilize more than one of the yolks. Awards/ Prizes William Harvey never won any awards or prizes, al

steroid testing :: essays research papers

Steroids   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Picture this. You’re watching your favorite baseball player at the plate and the pitch comes and he absolutely crushes the ball strait out of the park; but the next day there is a big investigation and your favorite player is caught having used an illegal steroid to enhance his play. You hope the news isn’t true but the evidence is over whelming. Your favorite baseball player broke the rules and is a cheater (Brown). This terrible scenario can easily be a future reality if steroid testing doesn’t begin regularly. In baseball the owner is allowed to test for steroids once a season and that’s all that is mandatory (Shaikin). This interests me because some of my favorite athletes in several sports are being accused of cheating the game and I just simply want the truth. Fans over the country agree that there should be more steroid testing, to get rid of the cheaters, but more importantly people believe they need more testing to help save li ves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For instance, many people will be in favor of more steroid testing because they want all the dishonest players out. People want the competition and the level of play fair. Nobody wants to have a league where 90% of the players follow the rules and workout and mold there body bodies by using hard work, and see the other ten percent just simply take a quick injection of some steroid and have there bodies bigger and faster than the rest (Shaikin). Next, and overwhelmingly people want previous records and accomplishments stricken from the record if that person is taking steroids. For example,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   take a player like Sanfrancisco Giants slugger Barry Bonds, who had 73 home runs in a single season a few years ago and people want him tested for steroids (Brown). It raises a good point. If players have nothing to hide then why not test them. The players seem to have all the control on if they should be testes or not, but people forget that it’s the owners and the league that decide the policies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Still, and most importantly the main reason athletes should be tested is for their safety. For example, if a player uses steroids there a number of side effects. They can get liver cancer, cardiovascular problems, sterility, and testicular atrophy (Miller). In fact, withdrawal from steroids is almost as bad as taking steroids.

Tess of the d’Urbervilles :: Literary Analysis, Thomas Hardy

In Thomas Hardy’s classic novel, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, there are many complex and intriguing characters that emerge from it. Two such characters are the two young men who tried to win Tess over, Alec d’Urberville and Angel Clare. These two characters are distinctly different from one another in many ways, but in other, more subtle ways, they possess some similarities. Their physical appearances are noticeably different though it is noted that they are both especially handsome young men. Alec has â€Å"touches of barbarism†(32) in his face while Angel’s has â€Å"grown more thoughtful† (112). They also seem to have the opposite colors of hair. Alec’s hair being â€Å"black† (35) while Angel has the â€Å"palest straw colour† that â€Å"deepens to a warm brown†(112). Furthermore, their mouths have variations as well. The â€Å"badly molded†, but â€Å"smooth†, â€Å"full†(35) lips of Alec are much different than the â€Å"small† and â€Å"delicately lined†(114) ones of Angel. Even more, their eyes are described with opposing adjectives. The difference in the Alec’s â€Å"bold rolling eye† and Angel’s â€Å"fixed, abstracted eyes†(114) are quite present. The variety in their faces are most definitely there. The descriptions of their general features relate to their actions. Alec is a womanizer who jumps from woman to woman without regard to their feelings, carelessly flinging around their hearts and virginity. Barbaric. His hair, the darkest possible color, can be associated to a dark personality related to sin and other negative aspects of life. His mouth, which is shaped roughly, like his actions and character, can sometimes be overlooked because of the smoothness of them. Like the smooth trait of his lips, Alec can use trickery to disguise his real motives with people, which include his us of sly words. He certainly has a bold personality, like his eyes, having the audacity to steal a â€Å"cursory kiss†(70) from Tess when he can. The rolling part of his eyes can be taken literally. Because he cannot keep his eyes still, his eyes are forever roaming. It shows his unwillingness to commit to one woman because they are always wondering to others. Angel who is described with reserved, quieter adjectives, is in fact more so Alec. His reservedness often leads many women to fall for his as well because humans, for the most part, naturally want what they cannot have. And Angel who is â€Å"too much taken up with’ his own thoughts to notice girls†(113) fills these requirements.

Great Expectations – Charles Dickens

The evolution of a person can be complicated when one has â€Å"great expectations. † In Charles Dickens’ finest novel, â€Å"Great Expectations,† a young boy named Phillip Pirrup known as Pip who’s great expectations are a dramatized exploration of human growth and the pressures that distort the potential of an ordinary individual, especially in the process of growing up. Pip is a simple blacksmith’s boy who aspires to cross social boundaries when he realizes his own upbringing is common; however, he has no means to change; mysteriously, he is given the means, but wealth only brings him arrogance. He learns that happiness in life can be achieved only by hard work and the great expectations not grounded in reality can only lead to tragedy and heartache. Uncommonness on the inside is more important than uncommoness on the outside. Pip progresses through three stages of life, all of which he goes through different goals. In Pip’s first stage of life he is an innocent boy with a good heart, whose goals are to be apprenticed as a blacksmith with his friend and guardian, Joe Gargery. Perhaps, he doesn’t have very many goals as a seven-year-old because he doesn’t know what the world has to impact upon him. This shows that Joe is a role model to Pip and is a factor of his life. In Pip’s second stage of life, his goals change a bit to which makes him change his attitude toward his loved ones; he meets Estella, a rich snobby, but beautiful girl, whom rejects Pip, therefore Pip has a goal to become a gentleman to be in the company of Estella. This shows that Estella is an influence to his goals and affects his attitude in life. This also reveals that Pip becomes arrogant because of the predominance of Estella because he wants to be at the same level as her to with her. Pip’s third stage in life has soon to come, his goal is to still be with Estella, but mostly he wants to help out his benefactor, Abel Magwitch, known as the â€Å"convict;† he also learns that his expectations are all one big sham. This shows how is attitude has changed from a cold hearted arrogant person to a warm hearted caring person. This also reveals that he has to help his benefactor in order to feel a level of satisfaction. Ultimately, Pip learns that his goal in life is out of reach and is full of haughtiness. Undergoing his three stages of life, he has many different values toward himself and others. In Pip’s first stage, his values are very primitive, the only values he has is for Joe, his values for Joe are very father-son like, he feels equal to Joe. Perhaps, Pip has very primitive values because he has very little knowledge about how life works. This also reveals that he might have felt this value because of the way Joe treated Pip. In Pip’s second stage of life, his values for Joe change tremendously because of the money he receives while getting an education. This shows how money can change a person’s values for the people around him. This also reveals that he thinks he is better than Joe is because he is now wealthier and is high class. In Pip’s third stage of life his values change dramatically, he realizes how is arrogance and selfishness affect the way he treats other people, like the time he is disgusted to be educated by a convict. This shows how Pip and society put a tag on people and it can never change. This also reveals that Pip learns from his mistakes once it has backfired on himself. Pip’s values dramatically change, he learns from his mistakes and his worth of being a human become clear.